Dog breeding is an activity where one person's decisions are written into the bodies and characters of beings who have no say in the matter. That is precisely why it is full of questions with no easy answers. Here I open them honestly, including where they concern me.
Appearance versus health
This is the oldest ethical dilemma in cynology and the one with the most measurable consequences. When a feature becomes fashionable, breeding exaggerates it. The result can be dogs that struggle to breathe, to walk or to give birth.
The most compelling evidence came from Packer and colleagues in 2015. They showed that the risk of brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome rises steeply as the muzzle shortens; at a craniofacial ratio of around 0.03 the risk reached about ninety-five per cent. The authors explicitly called on kennel organisations not to encourage exaggeration of this conformation in standards or in the ring.
Our breeds are not brachycephalic, but the principle holds everywhere: whenever we select appearance at the expense of how a body functions, we make a mistake the dog pays for.
A narrow gene pool
The second great dilemma is the closed nature of pedigree populations. In 2021, Bannasch and colleagues measured a mean inbreeding level of 0.249 across 227 breeds. For perspective: mating full siblings gives a value of 0.25. The average breed is therefore genetically at the level of siblings having been the parents.
The study also found statistically significant differences in morbidity between breeds with low and high inbreeding. For a breeder this means two things. First, a five-generation pedigree genuinely understates the true level of relatedness. Second, seeking sires outside one's own circle and outside one's country is not a luxury but a duty.
This is exactly why we look for sires in different countries. Not because it is easier or cheaper, but because it is the only way the pool stays diverse.
Rare colours: where is the line?
This dilemma concerns me directly, so I will not be evasive about it.
The criticism breeders of rare colours often hear is that we sell colour as a novelty and charge more for it. Where that is true, the criticism is justified. Colour in itself is neither a virtue nor a fault; it is simply one characteristic.
There are also colours genuinely linked to health risks. The best-known example is the merle gene, where mating two carriers often means deafness and eye defects. In dilute colours, alopecia has been described in some lines.
But I must also be honest about the limits of knowledge: there is no substantial research literature on the health of chocolate and black Terriers specifically. Anyone claiming they are more or less healthy than the classic colour is going beyond what the data allow.
So my position is simple. Colour must never come before health, temperament and structure. The first criterion is health, the second temperament, and only then appearance.
How many litters may a bitch have?
Here ethics meets regulation. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale requires in its breeding rules that only dogs sound in temperament and hereditary health be used, and that exaggeration of breed features harmful to health be prevented. Specific limits on frequency and age are delegated to national organisations.
For comparison: the UK Kennel Club sets a maximum of four litters in a bitch's lifetime, at least twelve months between litters, no mating before twelve months or after eight years, and no breeding after two caesarean sections.
Because these limits are set nationally, the rules of the Kennel Club of Slovenia apply here and must be checked in the current breeding regulations for the breed. Whatever the figures, the principle stands: a bitch is not a production unit. She needs rest between litters, and a breeder who ignores this breaks the spirit of the rules even while keeping to the letter.
Who do you give a puppy to?
This is the dilemma discussed least, though it arises daily. A breeder who hands a puppy to anyone who pays gives up responsibility at precisely the moment it matters most.
Questions about lifestyle, about who will be at home, about what happens in the event of a move or illness, are not a vote of no confidence. They are the only tool a breeder has. Equally, part of ethical breeding is the commitment to take a dog back if difficulties arise. None of our dogs should ever end up in a shelter because someone's life changed.
Neutering: a dilemma with no single answer
This is discussed in very black-and-white terms, while the data are more nuanced. In 2020, Hart and colleagues showed across thirty-five breeds that the risks of early neutering — joint disorders and certain cancers — are strongly dependent on breed, sex and size. In large and giant breeds the risks were clear; in small breeds there was generally no meaningful increase in joint disorders.
At the same time, neutering removes the risk of pyometra and certain tumours and resolves the question of uncontrolled matings.
It follows that the blanket advice never to neuter, or always to neuter, is equally wrong. The decision is individual: by breed, sex, lifestyle, and in consultation with a vet.
Why I write about this at all
Because I believe a breeder who stays silent about dilemmas creates the impression that there are none. There are. Every pairing is a decision made on behalf of a being with no voice. The only honest thing is to speak about them openly, and to admit where we do not have enough data.
Literature and sources
Packer RMA, Hendricks A, Tivers MS, Burn CC (2015). Impact of facial conformation on canine health: brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome. PLOS ONE 10(10):e0137496.
Bannasch D, Famula T, Donner J et al. (2021). The effect of inbreeding, body size and morphology on health in dog breeds. Canine Medicine and Genetics 8:12.
Hart BL, Hart LA, Thigpen AP, Willits NH (2020). Assisting decision-making on age of neutering for 35 breeds of dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7:388.
Fédération Cynologique Internationale: International Breeding Rules (Bern 1979, amended Madrid 2022) and International Breeding Strategies (2010).
The Kennel Club (UK): Welfare Standard and Assured Breeder Scheme rules.
Specific limits on litter numbers and age in Slovenia are governed by the current breeding regulations of the Kennel Club of Slovenia.
This text is based on current professional knowledge and on our kennel's experience. It does not replace consultation with a veterinarian or cynologist.
